21st Century Science & Technology

Where Do We Stand on Cold Fusion?

by Edmund Storms

(Full text of article from Summer 2001 21st Century)


Methods Claimed to Produce CANR or LENR

Transmutation of Elements

Where to Now?


Just what has been accomplished so far in the field of cold fusion? (Since the term "cold fusion" has become unfashionable, the general process is now called either Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions, CANR, or Low Energy Nuclear Reactions, LENR.) Unfortunately, the few scientists who remain in this field have been so distracted trying to convince their fellow scientists that the effect is real, that they have not made much progress toward producing a useful device. Nonetheless there are substantial results to report.

First, a dozen techniques have been found to produce anomalous energy and benign nuclear products in certain solids. These are listed in the table (p. 76). Most of these methods have been duplicated at independent laboratories, and several can be made to work by anyone who would take the time to learn how. In spite of this fact, a spokesman for the American Physical Society,1 in his recent book Voodoo Science, refuses to acknowledge any progress at all. Such is the reason that this discovery is not yet solving our energy problems. A more accurate description of the situation can be found in a book by Charles Beaudette.2 Readers interested in the scientific details can find much information at http://home.netcom.com/~storms2/index.html.

What is this pariah subject all about?

When the CANR effect occurs, energy is produced from a collection of nuclear reactions, all taking place in special solid environments. The most easily initiated is fusion between two deuterons, resulting in helium. No harmful radiation accompanies this reaction, in contrast to the "hot" fusion method. The relationship between helium production and power production has now been measured using the Pons-Fleischmann3 method (No. 1 in the table),4, 5 as well as the gas loading method (No. 9 in Table).6

METHODS CLAIMED TO PRODUCE CANR OR LENR (COLD FUSION)
Note: AE = anomalous energy, NP = nuclear products.

1. Electrolysis of D2O (H2O)-based electrolyte using Pd, Pt, Ti, or Ni cathodes. (This is the orginal Pons-Fleischmann method, which has been replicated hundreds of times to produce claimed AE and NP in every country where the method was used.)

2. Electrolysis of KCL-LiCL-Lid (fused salt) electrolyte using a Pd anode. (Several attempts at duplication have failed.)

3. Electrolysis of various solid compounds in D2o(proton conduction). (This method has been duplicated in the United States, Japan, and France to produce AE.)

4. Gas discharge (low energy ions) using Pd electrodes in D2 (H2). (Variations on this method have reported AE and NP in the United States, Russia, and Japan.)

5. Ion bombardment (high energy ions) of various metals by D+. (Variations on this method have reported NP in Russia and Japan.)

6. Gas reaction (H2) with Ni under special conditons. (Replicated independently several times in Italy to produce NP and AE.)

7. Cavitation reaction involving D2O and various metals using an acoustic field. (This method has been replicated in the United States to produce NP and AE.)

8. Cavition reaction in H2O using microbubble formation. (Several attempts to duplicate variations on the method have failed.)

9. Reaction of finely divided palladium with pressurized deuterium gas. (Variations on this method have produced AP and NP in the United States and Japan.)

10. Plasma discharge under D2O or H2O. (Variations on this method have produced AP and NP in the United States, Italy, and Japan.)

11. Phase change or a chemical reaction, both involving deuterium. (NP production has been reported in the United States and in Russia.)

12. Biological systems. (This method has produced NP in Japan, Russia, and France.)


Figure 1 compares two completely independent measurements of helium released to the gas, while anomalous power is being produced by a palladium cathode in a deuterium-oxide-based electrolyte. While the amounts of heat and helium are small, agreement within the data sets, and between the two studies, is well within the expected error. However, the values for helium do not include helium retained by the palladium cathode. Helium was found to be absent on a number of occasions when no excess energy was detected.

The gas-loading method gives a much larger effect, as shown in Figure 2. Here, deuterium gas was placed in contact with finely divided palladium deposited on a carbon-based catalyst.7 As anomalous energy is generated, the amount of helium in the gas increases, eventually exceeding the concentration within the surrounding air. Some samples are found to produce helium and heat, and some do not, even though they are from the same batch of catalyst. Studies were done to eliminate the possibility that helium was being desorbed from the catalyst.

Figure 3 compares the anomalous energy and the amount of helium produced. The slope is somewhat greater than the expected value of 24 MeV/atom because some helium is retained by the catalyst. Workers in Japan have seen the same effect using palladium-black.8 Finely divided palladium, plated on a platinum surface, will also make anomalous energy very easily when placed in a Pons-Fleischmann cell, in contrast to the normally used palladium wire or sheet.9
Figure 1
HELIUM AND ANOMALOUS POWER GENERATED BY A PONS-FLEISCHMANN CELL
Shown are two independent measurements of the relationship between atoms of helium per watt/second of energy and anomalous power generated by a Pons-Fleischmann type cell. The helium measured in the generated gas does not include helium retained by the palladium cathode. This work was done at the Naval Weapons Laboratory at China Lake (Miles et al.) and at SRI in Stanford (Bush and Lagowski).

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 2
HELIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN DEUTERIUM OVER TIME
Shown is the increase of helium concentrations in a gas-loaded cell, which contains D2 surrounding a palladium and carbon catalyst, studied over time. Some samples were found to produce higher concentrations of helium, eventually exceeding the concentration within the surrounding air, while other samples did not produce helium, although they were from the same batch of catalyst.

Figure 3
ANOMALOUS ENERGY AND HELIUM PRODUCED IN A GAS-LOADED CELL
Shown is the relationship between the amount of anomalous energy and the amount of helium produced in a cell containing palladium on charcoal surrounded by deuterium gas. As anomalous energy is generated, the amount of helium increases. This study was done at SRI at Stanford with the help of Drs. Case and George.

Figure 3

Edmund Storms
Courtesy of Infinite Energy

The author at the Cold Fusion and New Energy Symposium in October 1998.

Independent laboratories have duplicated all of these methods, and the reasons for failure when using commercial palladium metal are now understood. The reason for the failure while using commercial palladium is that the required properties of the palladium are neither uniform, nor easily duplicated. Only rare pieces of palladium, which do not crack when reacted with high concentrations of deuterium, are suitable. Apparently, having very fine particles of a suitable material is another essential condition for this phenomenon to work.

Transmutation of Elements
Occasionally, evidence for a whole spectrum of nuclear reactions, called transmutation, is seen when the surfaces of electrodes are examined.10, 28 These reactions are found when either ordinary hydrogen or deuterium is present, as gas or as water. Of course, some of this material—but not all—results because ordinary impurities within the environment are concentrated on the surface. In some cases, great care was taken to purify the system. In addition, some of the anomalous elements are many orders of magnitude more than can be attributed to contamination, and some have an abnormal isotopic ratio.

In general, a special solid environment needs to be created, and the effect can be enhanced by electrical discharge. This aspect of the phenomena is proposed as a way to reduce the radioactivity of nuclear waste, by releasing energy stored in the unstable nucleus more rapidly. In other words, either the half-life is shortened, or the nucleus is converted to a stable isotope. In this manner, the nuclear waste poisons produced by fission power might be removed while making useful energy, all without making more poison. In this sense, cold fusion is higher up the evolutionary ladder to a more perfect energy source.

Where to Now?
Where do we go from here?

First, the special environments in which these nuclear reactions occur need to be identified and investigated. The common assumption that the active material is b-PdD has wasted much effort. Actually, the structures are very small regions within an inert material, and can be any one of many kinds of materials able to acquire a high concentration of deuterium or hydrogen. Although palladium is one of these materials, the compound b-PdD is not the structure in which the nuclear reactions occur. This realization shifts attention away from bulk material, which can be easily studied, to very small regions within a larger structure, which are not so easy to study.

In other words, the cost of tools needed to understand this effect has just gone up. This creates a Catch-22. The present, rejecting attitude restricts investigators to using simple tools, which are incapable of answering the questions skeptics demand be answered. Without these answers, no money will be spent on the required tools.

The literature now consists of more than 3,000 papers having some relationship to the effect, with about 1,000 of these useful for an understanding. Many are published in peer-reviewed journals. More than 500 variations on various themes have been proposed as explanations, with about a dozen being useful. Work is being done in six countries with official government support in most.

Of this group, only the United States has resisted supporting any but a small effort. In fact, the U.S. Patent Office is unique in refusing to issue patents on the subject. The United States is now the largest user of polluting energy, yet resists any change in this situation, even to the point of completely ignoring a method to make safe nuclear energy. How much worse must the situation become before our leaders come to their senses?

Dr. Edmund Storms retired in October 1991 from Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, where he had worked for 32 years. His research there was on the SP-100 space nuclear program, and space nuclear propulsion systems. He continues to conduct his own research in "cold fusion," and has published many articles on the subject.

References
1. R. Park, 2000. Voodoo Science. (New York: Oxford University Press) 211 pages.

2. C.G. Beaudette, 2000. Excess Heat. Why Cold Fusion Research Prevailed. (Concord, N.H.: Oak Grove Press, Infinite Energy, Distributor) 365 pages. Reviewed in 21st Century by Dr. Thomas E. Phipps, Fall 2000, p. 74.

3. S. Pons, and M. Fleischmann, 1990. "Calorimetric measurements of the palladium/deuterium system: Fact and fiction." Fusion Technol., Vol. 17, p. 669.

4. M.H. Miles, and B.F. Bush, 1994. "Heat and Helium Measurements in Deuterated Palladium." Trans. Fusion Technol., Vol. 26(4T), p. 156.

5. B. Bush, and J.J. Lagowski, 1998."Methods of Generating Excess Heat with the Pons and Fleischmann Effect: Rigorous and Cost Effective Calorimetry, Nuclear Products Analysis of the Cathode and Helium Analysis," in Seventh International Conference on Cold Fusion. Vancouver, Canada: ENECO, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah.

6. M.C.H. McKubre, et al., 2000. "The Emergence of a Coherent Explanation for Anomalies Observed in D/Pd and H/Pd System: Evidence for He-4 and He-3 Production," in Eighth International Conference on Cold Fusion. Lerici (La Spezia), Italy: Italian Physical Society, Bologna, Italy.

7. L.C. Case, 1998. "Catalytic Fusion of Deuterium into Helium-4," in Seventh International Conference on Cold Fusion. 1998. Vancouver, Canada: ENECO, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah.

8. Y. Arata, and Y.-C.Zhang, 1997. "Helium (He-4, He-3) within deuterated Pd-black." Proc. Japan Acad. B, Vol. 73, p. 1.

9. E. Storms, 2000. "Excess Power Production from Platinum Cathodes Using the Pons-Fleischmann Effect," in Eighth International Conference on Cold Fusion. 2000 Lerici (La Spezia), Italy: Italian Physical Society, Bologna,Italy.

10. G. Miley, et al., 2000. "Advances in Thin-Film Electrode Experiments," in Eighth International Conference on Cold Fusion. Lerici (La Spezia), Italy: Italian Physical Society, Bologna, Italy.

11. J. Divisek, L. Fuerst, and J. Balej, 1989. "Energy balance of D2O electrolysis with a palladium cathode. Part II. Experimental results." J. Electroanal. Chem., Vol. 278, p. 99.

12. C.T. Dillon, and B.J. Kennedy, 1993. "The electrochemically formed palladium-deuterium system. I. Surface composition and morphology." Aust. J. Chem., Vol. 46, p. 663.

13. D.S. Silver, J. Dash, and P.S. Keefe, 1993. "Surface topography of a palladium cathode after electrolysis in heavy water." Fusion Technol., Vol. 24, p. 423.

14. J. Dash, G. Noble, and D. Diman, 1994. "Surface Morphology and Microcomposition of Palladium Cathodes After Electrolysis in Acified Light and Heavy Water: Correlation With Excess Heat." Trans. Fusion Technol. Vol. 26 (4T), p. 299.

15. J.O.M. Bockris, and Z. Minevski, 1996. "Two zones of 'Impurities' observed after prolonged electrolysis of deuterium on palladium." Infinite Energy, Vol. 1 Nos. 5/6, p. 67.

16. T. Ohmori, et al., 1997. "Transmutation in the electrolysis of light water-excess energy and iron production in a gold electrode." Fusion Technol., Vol. 31, p. 210.

17. T. Ohmori, et al., 1997. "Low temperature nuclear transmutation forming iron on/in gold electrode during light water electrolysis." J. Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 22, p. 459.

18. Y. Iwamura, et al., 1998. "Detection of anomalous elements, X-ray, and excess heat in a D2-Pd system and its interpretation by the electron-induced nuclear reaction model." Fusion Technol., Vol. 33, p. 476.

19. T. Mizuno, et al., 1998. "Confirmation of the changes of isotopic distribution. for the elements on palladium cathode after strong electrolysis in D2O solutions." Int. J. Soc. Mat. Eng. Resources, Vol. 6, No. 1, p. 45.

20. V. Nassisi, 1998. "Transmutation of elements in saturated palladium hydrides by an XeCl excimer laser." Fusion Technol., Vol. 33, p. 468.

21. T. Ohmori, et al., 1998. "Nuclear transmutation reaction occurring during the light water electrolysis on Pd electrode." Int. J. Soc. Mat. Eng. Resources, Vol. 6, No. 1, p. 35.

22. T. Ohmori, et al., 1998. "Transmutation in a gold-light water electrolysis system." Fusion Technol., Vol. 33, p. 367.

23. I. Savvatimova, 1998. "Transmutation Effects in the Cathode Exposed Glow Discharge, Nuclear Phenomena or Ion Irradiation Results?" in Seventh International Conference on Cold Fusion. 1998. Vancouver, Canada: ENECO, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah.

24. Y. Iwamura, et al., 1998. "Detection of Anomalous Elements, X-ray and Excess Heat Induced by Continuous Diffusion of Deuterium Through Multi-layer Cathode (Pd/CaO/Pd)," in Seventh International Conference on Cold Fusion. 1998. Vancouver, Canada: ENECO, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah.

25. V. Nassisi, and M.L. Longo, 2000. "Experimental results of transmutation of elements observed in etched palladium samples by an excimer laser." Fusion Technol., Vol. 37, p. 247.

26. X.Z. Li, et al., 2000. "Nuclear Transmutation in Pd Deuteride," in Eighth International Conference on Cold Fusion. Lerici (La Spezia), Italy: Italian Physical Society, Bologna, Italy.

27. Y. Iwamura, T. Itoh, and M. Sakano, 2000. "Nuclear Products and Their Time Dependence Induced by Continuous Diffusion of Deuterium Through Multi-layer Palladium Containing Low Work Function Material." in Eighth International Conference on Cold Fusion. Lerici (La Spezia), Italy: Italian Physical Society, Bologna, Italy.

28. J. Warner, and J. Dash, 2000."Heat Produced During the Electrolysis of D2O with Titanium Cathodes." in Eighth International Conference on Cold Fusion. Lerici (La Spezia), Italy: Italian Physical Society, Bologna, Italy.
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